Adaptations of Ecosystems to Climate Change
This includes natural terrestrial ecosystems and managed landscapes - agriculture
and forestry. See also Section 7.2.1a Hydrology
In Ontario, as globally, the most vulnerable regions and communities
have limited ability to adapt to the effects of changes in climate.
Northern natural areas of boreal forest, tundra, and the few
built communities are threatened the most by climate change.
They are least able to cope with these changes.
In 2005, there are few scientific publications to be found,
especially concerning benchmarks and causes of changes in wildlife
population, either of any one species population or diversity
of species population. The Species at Risk Program - SAR - is
overwhelmed with the number of species that must be researched.
An ecosystem approach is being developed to integrate research
and analysis into a bigger picture, especially in the Carolinian
zone of southwestern Ontario.
In 2000, Windsor area in Southwestern Ontario, was home to representatives
of 49% of plant families found in the tropics. It is predicted
that this will increase to 75%, while Toronto will change from
42% to 65% by the end of the century. There are 4 more whole
forest families represented in the southern area of central Ontario.
Beginning in the 1940s normal temperatures increased noticeably
through the 1960s and 1970s. They changed the most during the
1990s. The 1990s recorded the greatest difference compared
to normal temperatures.
There also has been a decrease in the coldest temperatures recorded.
LOWS ARE NOT SO LOW NOW!
During El Nino and La Nina events years, the effects from these
atmospheric-oceanic events in the Pacific Ocean increased Ontario
temperatures up 20%. Atmospheric-oceanic events add to the already
complex list of factors that influence natural variability in
climate. Climate change projections for changes in temperature
add to this natural uncertainty and variability.
As the climate warms the breeding times of populations in ecosystems
change, for example, flowering times of Ontario species are earlier. The
dymamics of the food chains and webs are affected. There may
be some implications for human health. For example, an increase in rodent
populations such as the deer mouse after these events has been
tied to viral outbreaks of respiratory illness in southwestern
United States.
Climate change and heat island effects in our big cities, such
as Toronto, are considered as "likely" contributing
factors to increased temperatures in Ontario.
Nature's water cycle and carbon cycle are the keys to adaptation
and mitigation for terrestrial ecosystems and human or built
systems. All vegetation locks up carbon with water as carbohydrates
during photosynthesis in order to grow. The fiber, wood, and starch
produced by photosynthesis all reduce the amount of carbon dioxide
in the air. Large trees will lock up more carbon than young or
dwarf trees. Vegetation is acting as a carbon sink.
The length of time the carbon is removed from the carbon cycle
depends on the differences in lifetime and in size of the mature
plant. Vegetation releases carbon dioxide when respiring, rotting,
decaying or burning. Vegetation is acting as a carbon source.
Melting of the permafrost and shorter winters will increase
the rate of decay of the vegetation of forest floor and tundra.
Warmer temperatures with more carbon dioxide in the air may increase
the growth rate. Monitoring of forest canopies to record the
amount of carbon dioxide released above the canopy will help
to determine whether our Ontario forests are in fact carbon sources
or sinks overall.
The rate of CO2 uptake by trees is very dependent on the type
of tree and the age of the stand. For most species, there is
very little carbon accumulation in the first decade of growth.Fast
growing species are the exception, but mature quickly, become
saturated as a sink, and unless harvested become a sink again.
The graph below examines three types of trees over a half century
to compare how much wood they produce.
NEW FORESTS UP TAKE CARBON SLOWLY
Source: National Climate Change Process Sinks Table Report Science
and Impacts of Climate Change CD Presentation Graphics
MSC Environment Canada/ ESS Natural Resources Canada, December
ACTIVITY 1
- Which tree type locks up the most carbon in its lifetime?
- How old do trees generally have to be to become carbon sinks?
Research: What other information do you need before making a
decision as to what species to plant in a hectare. ?
Managed forests of trees selected for rapid harvesting may be
too tall and thin to withstand extreme events such as ice storms.
Check out the damage (MNR - 1998) in the Eastern Ontario Model
forests. More forest research to prepare for the effects of climate
change is needed.
Restoration of ecosystems by planting need to consider the species
that can withstand warmer temperatures and winters with less
snow cover and more ice rain. Some experiments with choices
of tree species and their response to climate change
are underway.
Over 70 species and 2100 trees were planted by volunteers in
a long-term research project organized by the Association for Canadian
Educational Resources (ACER), Arborvitae, and Humber Arboretum.
On-going measurements of each tree planted by community volunteers
will provide data as to planting methods, species choices, and
success rate. This site, towards the northern edge of the Carolinian
zone, is located in the Toronto urban heat island. This planting
is an experiment in the present for communities to work with
natural ecosystems for the future - under the warmer conditions
of climate change.
Increases in temperature increase the rate of evaporation from
the soil and evapotranspiration from agricultural crops, managed
forests, and all natural ecosystems.
Scientists specializing in the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence
ecosystems have worked together to prepare the list of actions
that can be taken to reduce the effects of climate change for
the International Joint Commission. Most of these recommendations
for adaptive actions would also apply to other watersheds in
Ontario.
ACTIVITY 2
Choose one recommendation and discover what that changes would
have to be made in your area.
Plant and animal species will change as some are overstressed
and tend to migrate north with temperature change. In response
to global warming, Ontario's climate is projected to warm by
more than 5 oC in the next century. Last century
the temperature only increased by 0.7 oC .
Even small increases in present temperature increase vulnerability
to change. A subtle warming of 1-2 oC can
significantly change land use and biodiversity especially in
rural areas. Land which receives more than the critical level
of 2800 corn heat units (CHU) can be linked to the historic
disappearance of inland wetlands in Ontario. Selections of varieties
of corn, soybeans, and fruit are made based on CHU. Soil which
receives more than 2800 CHU can be used for higher value cash
crops.
Warmer annual temperatures will shift the 2800 CHU line northward
and land use changes could be made from wooded or wetland areas
to agriculture. 2900 CHU is the present northern range of Carolinian
forest in Ontario. The area with at least 3200 CHU shows 4% forest
cover remaining. With affordable irrigation these areas may lose
even more Carolinian woods to become market garden crops. (Environment
Canada.)
The figure below represents the Landcover and Threshold Corn
Heat Units* (2900, 3200) for Southwestern Ontario in 2000. The
lighter coloured areas indicate agricultural lands while the
darker areas indicate remnant hardwood forests.
Source: Klaassen and Auld, Environment Canada 2000 C-CIARN Workshop
Jan. 2001
ACTIVITY 3
- Research and find the equivalent of the CHU lines in average
temperatures.
- Move the lines shown to the predicted temperature lines for
2040. Or beyond.
The above map shows mostly Managed Landscapes- that is agriculture
and forestry change and manage the natural landscape.
Actions to reduce the risk to managed landscapes such as agriculture
and forestry will also reduce the costs of disasters due to climate
change. Changing dates of planting, fertilizing, and harvesting along
with the demand for irrigation will have to be part of adaptation
of agriculture especially in southwestern Ontario
The following recommendations for adaptive action have also
been developed by scientists with experience in these areas.
ACTIVITY 4
- Choose one recommendation and research what that means in
your area.
- What steps would need to be taken in Ontario.
Source for the three above charts:
International Joint Commission (IJC) Climate Change and Water
Quality in the Great Lakes Region. May2003 www.ijc.org
ACTIVITY 5
- Choose one recommendation and discover what that means in
your area.
- What steps would need to be taken in Ontario.
Invasive, non-native heat tolerant species may carry new disease
vectors or will replace less heat tolerant native plants or animals.
Increased temperatures will cause farmers and foresters to select
more heat tolerant species to maintain crop production.
Ontario fall color tours may be less colorful or change their
timing as deciduous trees do not experience the cold nights and
warm days needed to trigger fall changes.
Natural secession in wetlands, receding shorelines, decrease
in spawning and nursery areas for Great Lakes fish species, tree
species distribution and richness, forest insect and disease
outbreaks are conditions that are all sensitive to climate change.
Ontario as a province stretches over a range of latitude so
large that 3 major terrestrial ecosystems form bands across the
province.
- Southern - Mixed hardwood
- Middle -Boreal
- North-
Tundra.
The boundary lines are predicted to move north - Ontario
will see more savanna in the southwest and a change from mixed forest
to temperate deciduous forest in the southeast as early as 2030. (Bioscience, American
Inst. of Biological Sciences, 51, 9)
A 500 km northward shift in climate over the next century will
be faster than the plants can migrate. See pollen core analysis.
Following the last glacial period 12,000 years ago, maximum tree
migration rates averaged from 10 - 40km per century. White spruce
had a peak rate of 200 km per century. Present woodlots, unable
to keep pace with climate change, will be more likely to become
too stressed to survive and native biodiversity will be lost.
The Great Lakes Basin will experience 50-75 % decrease in leaf
area and 10-25% decrease in runoff according to the average simulated
change for the area.
ACTIVITY 6
- Invasive species may be native or alien/foreign to an area.
Define the difference.
- How do trees migrate?
ACTIVITY 7 Research:
Use internet, newspaper articles or journals to do one of these
or equivalent:
- Follow the spread of Virginia Opossums already in the Bruce
Peninsula by 2004 !
- Track the path of rabies since it crossed the border into Ontario
along the St. Lawrence.
Ozone concentrations have been shown to reduce growth - affect photosynthesis - to reduce food making or carbon gain by
trees. Experiments have been done with seedlings and mature trees, one
on a 160-year-old tree. All show a linear decrease in photosynthesis
with an increase in exposure to ozone.
Increasing temperatures and CO2 concentrations will tend to
offset the effects of increasing ozone so the overall effect
may be neutral. Improved integration of forest process models
is needed to better predict future conditions.
Increased temperature generally increases productivity but
there many other factors to consider. Drier conditions for forest
areas mean increased frequency of fires. See earlier ecosystem
sections.
Research for multiple environmental stress interactions at the
forest level, even at the tree level, is very limited. Interactions
between atmospheric CO2, soil, water and nutrient limitations,
carbon sequestration, and species composition; between CO2 and
troposphere O3 on plant water-use efficiency need more research.
The migration rates of tree species and the rate of ecosystem
establishment under climate change both need long-term studies
dealing with long-term monitoring of forest composition and
growth. Forests will also be directly impacted by warmer temperatures
as humans convert more forests to farmland. The greater number
of heat days will allow farmers to grow more and different
crops.
A combination of permanent ground-based forest monitoring plots
and improved remote-sensing technologies could help create a
baseline to better predict the future of our forests under climate
change.
ACTIVITY 8
- Which two changes in two major climate conditions are responsible
for all the sensitivities categories listed?
- List the beneficial effects of climate
change for Ontario's
Great Lakes Region.
ACTIVITY 9 Research
- Where are the international one-hectare biodiversity forest
research plots located in Ontario? Hint: check EMAN and ACER
websites.
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